2692-4048ISSN (Online)
2770-0070ISSN (Print)
Volume 21 , Issue 2 , PP: 188-198, 2026 | Cite this article as | XML | Html | PDF | Full Length Article
Basim Jamil Ali 1 * , Mohanad Ali Meteab Al-Obaidi 2
Doi: https://doi.org/10.54216/FPA.210212
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) play a crucial role in monitoring and data collection for various real-time applications, including environmental surveillance, industrial automation, and smart cities. However, achieving energy efficiency and timely data delivery remains a critical challenge, especially in time-sensitive scenarios. This research presents the development of an efficient cluster-based hybrid routing protocol that combines the strengths of Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) and Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient Network (TEEN) protocols to address these challenges. The proposed Hybrid LEACH-TEEN protocol dynamically adapts to both periodic and event-driven data transmission needs by integrating LEACH’s randomized cluster-head selection and TEEN’s threshold- based data transmission mechanism. This hybrid approach significantly reduces redundant transmissions and optimizes energy consumption across the network. Extensive simulations were conducted to evaluate the protocol’s performance in terms of network lifetime, stability period, energy consumption, and the number of alive nodes over time. Results demonstrate that the Hybrid protocol outperforms traditional LEACH and TEEN protocols, particularly in time- critical applications, by ensuring prompt response to critical events while maintaining energy-efficient operation. This work contributes to the design of intelligent and adaptive routing strategies for next- generation WSNs.
LEACH , TEEN , DDR , E-LEACH , M-LEACH , Hybrid Protocol
[1] L. Yang, D. Zhang, L. Li, and Q. He, "Energy Efficient Cluster-Based Routing Protocol for WSN Using Multi-Strategy Fusion Snake Optimizer and Minimum Spanning Tree," Sci. Rep., vol. 14, p. 16786, 2024, doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-66703-9.
[2] U. Ntabeni, B. Basutli, H. Alves, and J. Chuma, "Improvement of the Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Mean Field Games," Sensors, vol. 24, no. 21, p. 6952, 2024, doi: 10.3390/s24216952.
[3] P. Chaudhary and A. A. Waoo, "Wireless Sensor Network for Environmental Monitoring," Int. Res. J. Mod. Eng. Technol. Sci., vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 604–607, 2024, doi: 10.56726/IRJMETS45853.
[4] H. H. El-Sayed, E. M. Abd-Elgaber, and E. A. Zanaty, "An efficient Neural Network LEACH Protocol to Extended Lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks," Sci. Rep., vol. 14, p. 26943, 2024, doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-75904-1.
[5] N. Saadallah, S. A. Alabady, and F. Al-Turjman, "Energy-Efficient Cluster Head Selection via Genetic Algorithm," AL Rafdain Eng. J., 2024, doi: 10.33899/rengj.2023.143955.1293.
[6] R. K. Shial, P. Rath, S. R. Patnaik, and U. Ghuar, "Energy-Efficient Routing Protocols for Internet of Things-Based Wireless Sensor Networks: A Comprehensive Review," J. Netw. Comput. Appl., vol. 194, p. 103263, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.jnca.2022.103263.
[7] F. M. Salman, A. A. M. Lehmoud, and A. F. Mutar, "Optimization of LEACH Protocol for WSNs in Terms of Energy Efficient and Network Lifetime," J. Cyber Secur. Mobility, vol. 12, no. 03, pp. 275–296, 2023, doi: 10.13052/jcsm2245-1439.123.2.
[8] S. Ramesh et al., "Optimization of Leach Protocol in Wireless Sensor Network Using Machine Learning," Comput. Intell. Neurosci., 2022, doi: 10.1155/2022/5393251.
[9] R. Krishnamoorthy, K. Tanaka, and M. A. Begum, "Enhanced Cluster-Assisted Routing Protocol for Improved Energy Efficiency of Wireless Sensor Network," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Syst., Sustain., Sci., Eng., Energy, Environ., Commun., Comput. (ICSSSEECC), 2024, pp. 609–614, doi: 10.1109/icsseecc61126.2024.10649419.
[10] R. K. Shial, P. Rath, S. R. Patnaik, and U. Ghuar, "HEERPOP: Hybrid Energy Efficiency Routing Protocol for Optimal Path in the Internet of Things-Based Sensor Networks," Int. J. Comput. Netw. Appl., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 494–505, 2024, doi: 10.22247/ijcna/2024/31.
[11] Rigia, R. Chakraborty, B. Bhuyan, and H. K. Deva Sarma, "A Cluster-Based Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks-Based IoT System," in Proc. Int. Conf. Adv. Comput. Commun. Syst., Springer, 2024, pp. 497–510, doi: 10.1007/978-981-99-7077-3_49.
[12] Gupta, D. K. Sharma, and D. N. Sahai, "A Survey of Network Protocols for Performance Enhancement in Wireless Sensor Networks," in Proc. Int. Conf. Adv. Comput. Commun. Syst., Springer, 2024, pp. 673–684, doi: 10.1007/978-981-99-9562-2_56.
[13] P. William et al., "Assessment of Wireless Sensor Networks Integrated with Various Cluster-Based Routing Protocols," in Proc. Int. Conf. Adv. Comput. Commun. Syst., Springer, 2024, pp. 643–654, doi: 10.1007/978-981-97-0700-3_49.
[14] V. Gurusamy et al., "A lightweight multi-layer authentication protocol for wireless sensor networks in IoT applications," in AIP Conf. Proc., 2024, doi: 10.1063/5.0190884.
[15] M. Razzaq and S. Shin, "Fuzzy-Logic Dijkstra-Based Energy-Efficient Algorithm for Data Transmission in WSNs," Sensors, vol. 19, no. 5, p. 1040, 2019, doi: 10.3390/s19051040.
[16] G. Nain, K. K. Pattanaik, and G. K. Sharma, "Towards Edge Computing in Intelligent Manufacturing: Past, Present and Future," J. Manuf. Syst., vol. 62, pp. 350–366, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.jmsy.2022.01.010.
[17] M. Khedr, A. Aziz, and W. Osamy, "Successors of PEGASIS Protocol: A comprehensive Survey," Comput. Sci. Rev., vol. 39, p. 100368, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.cosrev.2021.100368.
[18] G. Kumar, R. Lavanya, R. Monisha, and K. A., "An intelligent survey on usage of sensor network in real time application," in Proc. Int. Conf. Adv. Comput. Commun. Syst., 2024, pp. 335–349, doi: 10.58532/v3bgnc2p9ch1.
[19] Miptahudin, T. Suryani, and W. Wirawan, "Wireless Sensor Network Based Monitoring System: Implementation, Constraints, and Solution," JOIV : Int. J. Inform. Vis., vol. 6, no. 4, p. 778, 2022, doi: 10.30630/joiv.6.4.1530.
[20] M. Benhadji, M. Kaddi, M. Omari, and A. Lagouch, "A Review of some LEACH Optimization Protocols for Wireless Sensor Network Clustering," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Electr. Technol. Smart Cities (ICET), 2023, pp. 1–5, doi: 10.1109/icets60996.2023.10410801.
[21] R. Kurda, S. Muhamad, and K. Jaf, "Energy Saving E-LEACH Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network," in Proc. IEEE Int. Energy Conf. (ENERGYCON), 2023, pp. 144–149, doi: 10.1109/iec57380.2023.10438802.
[22] M. Dongare, S. R. Jondhale, and B. Agarkar, "Novel Energy-Efficient Modified LEACH Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks," Int. J. Sensors Wireless Commun. Control, vol. 14, 2024, doi: 10.2174/0122103279296700240430095450.
[23] D. Mythili and S. Duraisamy, "A Novel Routing Protocol to Enhance Efficiency and Sustainability in Wireless Sensor Networks," Res. Square, 2024, doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs -3859352/v1.
[24] K. F. Shemim and U. Witkowski, "Energy Efficient Clustering Protocols for WSN: Performance Analysis of FL-EE-NC with LEACH, K Means-LEACH, LEACH-FL and FL-EE/D using NS-2," in Proc. Int. Conf. Microelectron. (ICM), 2020, pp. 1–5, doi: 10.1109/ICM50269.2020.9331768.
[25] D. Mechta, O. Mahgoun, and S. Harous, "ACOMAR: ACO‐based MAC‐aware routing protocol," Int. J. Commun. Syst., vol. 35, no. 1, p. e5055, 2021, doi: 10.1002/dac.5055.
[26] S. Madhavan et al., "Energy‐Efficient Reliable Data Transmission Using Optimized Cyclone Foraging Strategy in 5G Wireless Sensor Networks," Internet Technol. Lett., 2025, doi: 10.1002/itl2.643.
[27] S. Hebal, L. Louail, and S. Harous, "Latency and Energy Optimization Using MAC-Aware Routing for WSNs," Int. J. Bus. Data Commun. Netw., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 19-27, 2020, doi: 10.4018/IJBDCN.2020010102.
[28] H. H. El-Sayed et al., "An efficient neural network LEACH protocol to extended lifetime of wireless sensor networks," Dent. Sci. Rep., vol. 14, no. 1, 2024, doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-75904-1.
[29] V. C. Patil, "Application Prioritized TEEN Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Electr., Electron., Commun., Comput., Optim. Tech. (ICEECCOT), 2018, doi: 10.1109/ICEECCOT43722.2018.9001589.
[30] S. Lindsey and C. S. Raghavendra, "PEGASIS: Power-efficient gathering in sensor information systems," in Proc. IEEE Aerosp. Conf., Big Sky, MT, USA, 2022, doi: 10.1109/AERO.2022.1035242.
